Creating Connections Through Conservation.
Posted: March 22, 2019 Filed under: 2019, ERES525, Module Critique Assignment | Tags: #reconciliation, #restoration, ecosystem management, Human Values, Management, novel ecosystems, reservation Leave a commentPenny Ixer
Abstract
Increasing people’s perceived connection with nature may increase their support for conservation. As ecosystems, biodiversity and environments are threatened on a global scale, there is a growing importance placed on implementing effective conservation strategies. This module will establish three conservation strategies: reservation, restoration and reconciliation ecology, investigating their individual roles in conservation and in enabling or restricting people’s connections to nature. The conservation of valued species, opportunities for community involvement and education regarding conservation are identified in the module as key factors which may increase people’s perceived connection with nature and subsequently their investment in conservation. The complete exclusion of people from conservation sites, the spatial separation of anthropogenic settlements and conservation sites, and the requirement of large social movements are determined throughout the module as key factors which may limit people’s perceived connections to nature. Together reservation, restoration and reconciliation ecology may complement each other, increasing the opportunities for people to ‘connect’ with nature whilst more effectively conserving ecosystems.
Introduction
Rapid population, economic, political and technological growth are leading to the increased degradation of the Earth’s ecosystems (Swart et al., 2018). Conservation strategies used to combat the ecosystem degradation and biodiversity declines caused by human over-exploitation, provide varied connections between humans and nature. People’s perceived connection with nature, increased by interactions with biodiversity, translates into the value people place on conservation (Asah & Blahna, 2013). Perceptions of high connections to nature, increases the likelihood people will adopt conservation actions (Asah & Blahna, 2013). Reservation, restoration and reconciliation ecology are three conservation strategies which offer different connections between humans and nature, benefits for society and success for conserving ecosystems.
This module will investigate the three conservation strategies, reservation, restoration and reconciliation ecology, determining the type of connections between humans and nature that they each offer. Throughout the module, the three strategies will be compared for their potential effectiveness at conserving nature and their ability to increase people’s perceived connections with nature. To conclude, a conservation strategy or a combination of strategies will be suggested as the most effective conservation tool.
Reservation
Reservation is a conservation strategy that protects areas, which allows the environments and biodiversity within them to be protected (Kellert et al., 2000). Reservation can increase peoples perceived connections to nature by conserving valued species. Cultural, national and societal values revolving around threatened species, can all be satisfied through the creation of reserves. Species valued by Māori culture, such as the kiwi (Apteryx) and takahē (Porphyrio hochstetteri) are actively conserved in New Zealand reservation sites (Cullen, Moran and Hughey, 2005). Reservation as a conservation strategy can benefit humans, maintaining people’s perceived connection to nature by conserving the species people value.
Reservation however can also diminish people’s connections to nature, by creating reserves separate from humans. Reservations such as no-take marine reserves in New Zealand, remove Māori rights to gather resources from the sea and reduce the value people hold for conservation (Dodson, 2014). The belief that all people’s actions conflict with conservation, can produce conservation refugees (Pinto & Grelle, 2012; Paterson, 2006). Although many people act in ways that sustainably use and conserve ecosystems, many people are displaced by the creation of reserves, becoming conservation refugees as shown by figure 1 (Francis & Lorimer, 2007; Snodgrass et al., 2016). The Sahariya tribe, indigenous to central India, were evicted from their homes, livelihoods and spiritual connection to the land to make way for a wildlife sanctuary (Snodgrass et al., 2016). Suffering from the separation from their homeland, the happiness, life satisfaction, optimism for the future and spiritual contentment of the Sahariya tribe all significantly decreased (Snodgrass et al., 2016). The separation of humans from nature can ultimately decrease people’s acceptance of reservation as a conservation strategy. Reservation as a conservation strategy can also decrease people’s connections to nature and the value people place in conservation.
Restoration
Restoration is a conservation strategy which restores or rehabilitates degraded ecosystems (Meine, 2017). Similar to reservation, restoration can increase people’s perceived connections with nature by aiding the protection of human valued species. Both reservation and restoration strategies may enable community involvement and education opportunities (Miller et al., 2006), however the ability to get involved with restoration projects such as community planting may be easier. The Tiritiri Matangi project, is a community driven restoration project in New Zealand which ensures the involvement the public and local community (Baling et al., 2013). Restoration typically creates opportunities for community involvement, which in turn can increase people’s interactions and perceived connection to nature.
Restoration and reservation projects however, are not always within an easy reach of a large proportion of the world’s population. Urban residents in particular can lack a connection to nature, in some cases being far removed from reservation and restoration sites (refer to Figure 2). Unless of course you live in Wellington with restoration sites such as Zealandia lying within the city’s boundaries. Local communities living close to the Tarangire National Park show how interactions or perceived closeness with nature can lead to an invested desire for conservation (Paterson, 2006). As our interactions with nature contribute substantially to our interest in conservation efforts, reservation and restoration strategies which can diminish peoples perceived connection to nature, may consequently reduce people’s investment in conservation. Furthermore, restoration sites which aim to return ecosystems to a pre-human baseline, may also decrease people’s perceived connection to nature.
Reconciliation
Reconciliation ecology is a relatively new conservation strategy which may allow both ecosystems and humans to benefit (Francis & Lorimer, 2007). Reconciliation ecology proposes the diversification of anthropogenic habitats to support biodiversity (refer to Figure 3), without disadvantaging people (Francis & Lorimer, 2007). In urban environments where a majority of the world’s population presides (Miller, 2006; Francis & Lorimer, 2007), reconciliation ecology may provide considerably more opportunities for conservation education and involvement compared to reservation and restoration strategies. Reconciliation ecology will allow more people to interact with nature, which may increase people’s perceived connections to nature and investment in conservation. The more people that get involved with conservation through reconciliation ecology, the more people who will also be encouraged to participate in conservation (Kollmus & Agyeman, 2010). Reconciliation ecology however can be difficult to implement, requiring substantial momentum to initiate large social movements (Francis & Lorimer, 2007).
Conclusion
As ecosystems are being increasingly degraded, biodiversity is declining and environments are destroyed, the importance of implementing effective conservation strategies becomes fundamentally crucial. The connection people feel with nature is vital in increasing the adoption of conservation actions. The three conservation strategies, reservation, restoration and reconciliation ecology differ in connections between people and nature that they allow. Separately these conservation strategies are limited, potentially restricting people’s connections with nature and limiting peoples’ involvement in conservation. Together these conservation strategies may more effectively conserve ecosystems and increase peoples’ conservation actions. By implementing reservation, restoration and reconciliation together, the conservation strategies may complement each other, effectively conserving ecosystems and increasing peoples’ perceived connection to nature.
Bibliography
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Baling, M., van Winkel, D., Rixon., née Habgood, M., Ruffel, J., Ji, W., & Ussher, G. (2013). A review of reptile research and conservation management on Tiritiri Mantangi Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 37(3), 272-281.
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Dodson, G. (2014). Co-Governance and Local Empowerment? Conservation Partnership Frameworks and Marine Protection at Mimiwhangata, New Zealand. Society & Natural Resources, 27(5), 1-19.
Francis, R. A., & Lorimer, J. (2011). Urban reconciliation ecology: The potential of living roofs and walls. Journal of Environmental Management, 92, 1429-1437.
Kellert, S. R., Mehta, J. N., Ebbin, S. A., & Lichtenfeld, L. L. (2000). Community Natural Resource Management: Promise, Rhetoric, and Reality. Society & Natural Resources, 13(8), 705-715.
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Pinto, M., & Grelle, C. (2012). Minimizing conservation conflict for endemic primate species in Atlantic forest and uncovering knowledge bias. Environmental Conservation, 39(1), 30-37.
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Novel ecosystems Concept: Synthesis of existing currents of thoughts, and when to consider it.
Posted: May 1, 2017 Filed under: 2017, ERES525 | Tags: climate change, ecosystem management, ecosystem services, exploited species, hybrid ecosystems, invasive species, novel ecosystems 1 CommentBy Jeff Balland
The recent concept of novel ecosystems has aroused many debates. Novel ecosystems can be defined as new systems where new species combinations and functions that have never interacted historically, occur irreversibly and sustainably (Morse et al. 2014), due to anthropogenic activities, species introduction and climate change (Hobbs et al. 2006; Hobbs et al. 2009). The stage between an ecosystem and a novel ecosystem is called “hybrid ecosystem”, and can be defined by a changing system where a return to previous conditions is still possible before it reaches a tipping point (see Hobbs et al. 2013). Almost 12 years after its introduction (see also Chapin & Starfield 2005), two sides are opposed, whether restoration ecologists should integrate the concept of novel ecosystems into practice or not. I attempt to expose and criticize both of them to see what should be retained about this issue.
Embracing the concept
The proponents of this approach argue that it is more relevant to adapt to climate change, and help ecosystems to keep their functions and services when their communities are unbalanced by changing conditions. As most of existing ecosystems are concerned by changes, “novel ecosystems constitute the new normal” (Marris 2010).
As climate change affects species ranges, migrations and invasions (Parmesan 2006) and because non-indigenous species introduction is one of the biggest causes of native communities changes (natives can be excluded by losing competition) (Clavero & Garcia-Berthou 2005), promoting novel ecosystem management is to say tolerating invasive species (Rodriguez 2006). Indeed, invasive species removal has a real cost for governances. For instance, the removal costs to USA more than 22 billion dollars per year for all invasive species (Pimentel et al. 2005). Is Invasive Non-Native Species (INNS) removal compulsory? Many studies showed that sometimes, removing those species could have unexpected negative impacts on native species and ecosystems so that recovery of native species after their removal is not allowed (see Zavaleta et al. 2001; Ewel & Putz 2004): some INNS have even been described as keystone and engineer species (species playing a crucial role in the ecosystem) (Rodriguez 2006; Sousa & Gutiérrez 2009). For example, an invasive tree in Puerto Rico allows some native plants to settle where there were not able before (Lugo 2004). Considering this, exotic species should not be neglected just because they are non-native (Davis et al. 2011).
Figure 1. The Hamunara springs in New Zealand, where the Coastal Redwood is naturalized and provides useful ecosystem services in what can be considered as a a novel ecosystem. Credits: N.Y. Chan
By the way, the new concept of assisted migration (translocation of species threatened by climate change into more suitable locations), emerging as a solution to face environmental changes, will permit the creation of novel ecosystems in the areas where species are voluntary introduced (Minteer & Collins, 2010).
Finally, the novel ecosystems approach may allow improving quality of ecosystem services in exploited ecosystems such as plantation forestry or agriculture. In their study, Smaill et al.(2014) showed that the Coast Redwood Sequoia sempervirens matched all the considerations of New-Zealand foresters and could deliver better ecosystem services than the actual most exploited species (Pinus radiata). By the way, the Coastal Redwood is already naturalized in some part of the country (Figure 1).
Critiques
Yet, many scientists strongly disagree with the novel ecosystems concept. In their critique, Murcia et al.(2014) pointed several oversights of such an approach. First, assuming novel ecosystems are “the new normal” is denying successful stories of restoration and ignoring that many ecosystems are well-preserved. Secondly, it is argued that species responses to climate change are unpredictable on a local or regional scale (the usual restoration scales). Furthermore the thresholds of irreversibility in species combination, namely the tipping points determining whether a hybrid ecosystem may recover to the ancestral one or evolve toward a novel ecosystem, are still difficult if not impossible to identify (Aronson et al. 2014). According to the detractors, such a concept could provide a “license to disturb” for resource exploitation companies, and may reduce the investment in research and restoration projects because they may become unnecessary, as transformation of ecosystems may be accepted. At last, introducing or managing new species combinations, often including INNS, is not worth taking the risk and the precautionary principle should be applied to avoid any aggravation of ecosystems perturbations.
Integration in management
According to Hobbs et al.(2014), novel ecosystem approach in conservation can also be an alternative to classical restoration. In this paper, the authors made a framework on how decisions about ecosystem management should be taken (Figure 2), struggling between different limitations the managers could have in regards of management goals.
Figure 2. Framework for decision-making in ecosystem management, integrating the novel ecosystems concept. From Hobbs et al. (2014)
However, according to the authors, this framework is theoretic and crucially need further implementation. By the way, decision-making processes may be influenced by the degree of sympathy managers have towards novel ecosystems.
Conclusion
The novel ecosystem concept is a new way of looking at the environment. Integrating it in management practices may allow to use what were threats (for example invasive species) as advantages (ecosystem functioning). It may help to preserve species that are jeopardized by climate change though assisted migration, and ecosystem services of exploited lands may be enhanced by selecting species in regards of their ecological functions. In my opinion, the concept is not ignoring successful stories of restoration, nor it will provide “licence to disturb”, because novel ecosystems are not worth studying to replace conservation but to provide alternative management. However, I agree some new approaches such as assisted migration are uncertain because of unpredictable species responses (to climate change, to new community compositions, etc.). Likewise, the difficulty of identifying the tipping points in hybrid ecosystem is an obstacle to management decisions. But it is definitely worth putting energy in further investigations, because of all the knowledge about ecosystem functioning the discovery of these thresholds would bring. The concept crucially needs implementation even if the principle of precaution regarding the risks should be considered. That is why I strongly believe the concept should be embraced only as an ultimate alternative, when neither sufficient protection (reserves, protection status for species, conservation programs…) nor classical restoration can be done. In that way, the novel ecosystem approach will only provide good overcomes and exciting discoveries.
References:
Aronson, J., Murcia, C., Kattan, G.H., Moreno-Mateos, D., Dixon, K., Simberloff, D., 2014. The road to confusion is paved with novel ecosystem labels: a reply to Hobbs et al. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 29, 646–647. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2014.09.011
Murcia, C., Aronson, J., Kattan, G.H., Moreno-Mateos, D., Dixon, K., Simberloff ,D., 2014. A critique of the “novel ecosystem” concept. Trends Ecol Evol 29, 548–553. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2014.07.006
Chapin, F.S., Starfield, A.M., 1997. TIME LAGS AND NOVEL ECOSYSTEMS IN RESPONSE TO TRANSIENT CLIMATIC CHANGE IN ARCTIC ALASKA. Climatic Change 35, 449–461. doi:10.1023/A:1005337705025
Clavero, M., García-Berthou, E., 2005. Invasive species are a leading cause of animal extinctions. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 20, 110. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2005.01.003
Davis, M.A., Chew, M.K., Hobbs, R.J., Lugo, A.E., Ewel, J.J., Vermeij, G.J., Brown, J.H., Rosenzweig, M.L., Gardener, M.R., Carroll, S.P., Thompson, K., Pickett, S.T.A., Stromberg, J.C., Tredici, P.D., Suding, K.N., Ehrenfeld, J.G., Philip Grime, J., Mascaro, J., Briggs, J.C., 2011. Don’t judge species on their origins. Nature 474, 153–154. doi:10.1038/474153a
Ewel, J.J., Putz, F.E., 2004. A place for alien species in ecosystem restoration. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2, 354–360. doi:10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0354:APFASI]2.0.CO;2
Hobbs, R.J., Arico, S., Aronson, J., Baron, J.S., Bridgewater, P., Cramer, V.A., Epstein, P.R., Ewel, J.J., Klink, C.A., Lugo, A.E., Norton, D., Ojima, D., Richardson, D.M., Sanderson, E.W., Valladares, F., Vilà, M., Zamora, R., Zobel, M., 2006. Novel ecosystems: theoretical and management aspects of the new ecological world order. Global Ecology and Biogeography 15, 1–7. doi:10.1111/j.1466-822X.2006.00212.x
Hobbs, R.J., Higgs, E., Hall, C.M., Bridgewater, P., Chapin, F.S., Ellis, E.C., Ewel, J.J., Hallett, L.M., Harris, J., Hulvey, K.B., Jackson, S.T., Kennedy, P.L., Kueffer, C., Lach, L., Lantz, T.C., Lugo, A.E., Mascaro, J., Murphy, S.D., Nelson, C.R., Perring, M.P., Richardson, D.M., Seastedt, T.R., Standish, R.J., Starzomski, B.M., Suding, K.N., Tognetti, P.M., Yakob, L., Yung, L., 2014. Managing the whole landscape: historical, hybrid, and novel ecosystems. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 12, 557–564. doi:10.1890/130300
Hobbs, R.J., Higgs, E., Harris, J.A., 2009. Novel ecosystems: implications for conservation and restoration. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 24, 599–605. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.012
Hobbs, R.J., Higgs, E.S., Harris, J.A., 2014. Novel ecosystems: concept or inconvenient reality? A response to Murcia et al. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 29, 645–646. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2014.09.006
Lugo, A.E., 2004. The outcome of alien tree invasions in Puerto Rico. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2, 265–273. doi:10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0265:TOOATI]2.0.CO;2
Marris, E., 2006. Ecological and Evolutionary Responses to Recent Climate Change. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 37, 637–669. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.37.091305.110100
Marris, E., 2010. The new normal. Conserv. Mag. 11, 13–17
Morse, N.B., Pellissier, P.A., Cianciola, E.N., Brereton, R.L., Sullivan, M.M., Shonka, N.K., Wheeler, T.B., McDowell, W.H., 2014. Novel ecosystems in the Anthropocene: a revision of the novel ecosystem concept for pragmatic applications. Ecology & Society 19, 85–94. doi:10.5751/ES-06192-190212
Pimentel, D., Zuniga, R., Morrison, D., 2005. Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States. Ecological Economics, Integrating Ecology and Economics in Control BioinvasionsIEECB S.I. 52, 273–288. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.10.002
Smaill, S.J., Bayne, K.M., Coker, G.W.R., Paul, T.S.H., Clinton, P.W., 2014. The Right Tree for the Job? Perceptions of Species Suitability for the Provision of Ecosystem Services. Environmental Management 53, 783–799. doi:10.1007/s00267-014-0239-5
Sousa, R., Gutiérrez, J.L., Aldridge, D.C., 2009. Non-indigenous invasive bivalves as ecosystem engineers. Biol Invasions 11, 2367–2385. doi:10.1007/s10530-009-9422-7
Truitt, A.M., Granek, E.F., Duveneck, M.J., Goldsmith, K.A., Jordan, M.P., Yazzie, K.C., 2015. What is Novel About Novel Ecosystems: Managing Change in an Ever-Changing World. Environmental Management 55, 1217–1226. doi:10.1007/s00267-015-0465-5
Now Hear This: Changing the Message About Non-Native Species – Paul Roman
Posted: May 4, 2014 Filed under: 2014, BIOL420, Research Essay | Tags: #restoration, alien, biocontrol, conciliation biology, conservation, habitat, hybridisation, invasive, non-native, novel ecosystems, rapid evolution, taxon substitutes 1 Comment“The pathway of degradation differs from that of recovery.” – Suding and Hobbs, 2009.
Restoration ecologists have long worked to restore native habitats to their “natural state” by eradicating non-native species. Such conservation efforts need the community’s support to succeed. To obtain this support, a clear message was crafted: non-native species (including invasives) are harmful and must be eradicated. But this assertion is no longer entirely true. We now know that some non-natives are actually beneficial and should be preserved…or even introduced. Most habitats are now “novel” and will never again be “natural.” To ensure the community’s continued support for ongoing and future restoration efforts, the message must be changed. Realistic goals and practices must be conveyed convincingly to the public. Economic and cultural values should also be considered. Scientific credibility and community support are at stake.
Changing the Perspective
Global human movement of species has resulted in a breakdown of biogeographic barriers. Combined with climate change, the consequence has been novel ecosystems and species combinations (Hobbs 2006 & Meyerson 2007). Conservationists have declared war on these non-natives. The battle cry has remained unchanged: native habitats should be restored to their natural state by eradicating non-native species. This message has been forcefully and repeatedly conveyed to the public. And to some extent the message-bearers have a point. Some non-native species have had devastating effects: causing extinctions of native species, altering and destroying native habitat, and threatening animal and human health by spreading disease. Non-native species are recognised as a great threat to biodiversity. They also threaten our global environmental and economic welfare. The estimated economic impact of non-natives, including control costs, is $1.4 trillion annually, which is almost 5 percent of the global GDP (Pimentel 2001).
Figure 1: Anthropogenic biomes of the world
http://landscape.forest.wisc.edu/courses/readings/Ellis_etal_2008.pdf
But it is equally clear that some non-native species are beneficial, both directly and indirectly, to native species and ecosystems. Conciliation biology, a subgroup of invasion biology, recognises just this. It promotes the concept that short- and long-term conservation management should include these interactions (Caroll 2011).
Restoration ecologists already know this, and more adaptive management plans now call for the preservation and/or introduction of non-natives. Yet, the conservation community continues to deliver a contrary message to public. Let’s take a look at some essential restoration practices that are currently in use.
Take for Example…
Taxon substitutes
Taxon substitutes are non-natives that support restoration efforts by filling ecological niches left by extinct or fragmented populations. One example is the non-native Aldabra giant tortoise (Aldabrachelys gigantea) which was introduced to the surrounding islands of Mauritius. These animals were intended to replace extinct native large-bodied vertebrates that served as generalists and seed dispersers. The tortoises’ introduction has succeeded in maintaining ecosystem heterogeneity and native biodiversity. As a result, the giant tortoise is being considered for other similarly degraded insular ecosystems around the world (Griffiths & Harris 2010, Hansen 2010).
Figure 2: Dinizia excelsa (canopy tree) http://www.jstor.org/stable/3067823
Ecosystem services
The introduced African honeybee (Apis mellifera scutellata) had an unexpected positive effect on Dinizia excelsa (canopy tree) in Amazonian pastures (Figure 2). Due to human-induced habitat loss and fragmentation, D. excelsa was expected to experience a decline in population resulting from the disruption in mutualism by native pollinators. Instead, the honeybee replaced the native pollinators, enabling the D. excelsa to not only thrive in fragmented areas but to have a higher vigour and genetic diversity than the same trees in a contiguous forest (Dick 2001). Once considered a pest, this non-native has become an invaluable part of the management strategy, ensuring the preservation of this native habitat and species.
And lest we forget about biocontrol…
Biocontrol is another restoration practice which introduces non-native species to control other non-natives. A prime example of biocontrol is the introduction of the non-native Tanzania Eurytoma erythrinae to control a non-native gall wasp (Quadrastichus erythrinae). The wasp was introduced to Hawaii and soon attacked a native Erythrina species, leading to massive population declines (Rayna 2013). The biocontrol successfully suppressed some of the wasp infestation, allowing the Erythrina population to partially recover. This non-native biocontrol agent should be preserved. It has become part of its adopted environment and will protect the native Erythrina from extinction.
Changing the Message
Introducing and/or preserving non-natives are essential to restoring and protecting native habitats. But how can conservationists reconcile these practices with the repeated message that all non-natives should be eradicated? They can’t. And worse, they will likely have trouble promoting these new practices to a public made sceptical by the conflicting messages. The public may even lose confidence in the scientific community, seeing the changing message as an admission of faulty science. (“Hey Alexander, did you hear that the world really isn’t flat after all?!”) And if they were wrong before, perhaps they are wrong now. The public may oppose these new practices or simply throw their hands up in resignation, not knowing what to believe.
Yes, the message must change, but it must be done in a thoughtful way, considering ongoing and future management practices including non-natives. In other words, we have to learn from our mistakes.
In the excitement of a dawning movement and the rush to convince the public, scientists sometimes put little thought into crafting the message. For example, environmentalists used to warn against “global warming”. Scientists subsequently changed the message to the broader term, “climate change” after determining that other environmental changes posed more significant impacts on humans than increasing surface temperatures. The changing message fuelled scepticism about the legitimacy of the underlying science, eroding public support.
In the conservation context, non-native species were once referred to as “alien” species. That term, which conjured up visions of space invaders, was subsequently discouraged. Similarly, “invasive” species suggests an unwelcome visitor. “Non-native” connotes a species that doesn’t belong. These terms implicitly suggest that the subject species is harmful and intrusive. The negative connotation of these terms supports the message that non-native (alien, invasive, etc.) species should be eradicated. Predictably, this will make it even harder to garner public support when the message is changed to call for the preservation and/or introduction of “non-native” or “invasive” species.
Perhaps then it is time to retire the terms, “native” and “non-native.” In “Who’s Invading What,” the author suggests that the non-native/native dichotomy may eventually give way to “dominant”/“non-dominant” species. The spread of a dominant species may promote a decline in species diversity (Larson 2007). Whether the dominant species is “native” or “non-native” would seem to be of little importance (Houlahan and Findlay 2004; White 2006; Meiners 2007). More important is the reduction in ecological functioning and the diminished landscape diversity.
The New Message
So, the message should change. But what should it become? Perhaps something like this: Although there are legitimate reasons to eradicate some non-natives, restoring a native habitat to its natural state should not top the list. Restoring a habitat to its natural state is a largely unattainable goal – a financial “luxury” affordable by only a handful of communities. For the rest, restoration efforts should be designed to restore merely some of the habitat’s original functional attributes. This could be watershed preservation, providing habitat for natives, and economic recovery or return (Ewel and Putz 2004). The use of non-natives can play an integral part in these efforts. But even partial restoration efforts are not inexpensive (Mitsch and Gosselink 2000). Non-natives are often the most cost-effective option (D’Antonio and Meyerson 2002). Reducing the restoration price tag may engender social acceptance.
The new message should inform the public about the unavoidable development of “novel” ecosystems which are normal responses to environmental changes and disturbances. Alterations in climate change and land use affect species distributions and the environment. These alterations modify the composition and/or function of ecosystems. If you think about it, all ecosystems were novel at some point in time (Root 2006 and Harris 2006).
The new message should also consider the cultural uses and socio-economic value of non-native species. Restoration ecologists should be mindful of the cultural and political sensitivities of local communities. The success or failure of any particular restoration project can easily turn on social acceptance or rejection. The public’s support may be a prerequisite to obtaining the funds, labor, and regulatory approval necessary to complete the project. Resources should be carefully allocated to conservation efforts that yield more desirable results.
The new message should be broad enough to encompass ongoing as well as future practices. New research, co-evolutionary responses, and environmental resilience should be considered.
Now is the Time
It is time to modify efforts to restore native habitats to their “natural” state. Long-term adaptive management plans must include appropriate non-natives to promote the efficient use of resources. Most habitats are now novel and dependent on non-native species. There will continue to be a subgroup of non-native species that cause environmental, economic, and social damage. However, other non-natives will adapt and contribute to evolving ecosystems (Schlaepfer 2011). Messaging is key to obtaining critical public support. Evolving science and conservation practices may require future changes to the messaging. Today’s message must be flexible enough to accommodate these future changes. Scientific credibility and community support depend on a coherent message. We must always look forward while working to preserve the past.
References
Carroll, S. P., J. E. Loye, H. Dingle, M. Mathieson, T. R. Famula, and M. Zalucki. 2005. And the beak shall inherit—Evolution in response to invasion. Ecology Letters 8:944–951.
Carroll, Scott. 2011. Conciliation biology: the eco-evolutionary management of permanently invaded biotic systems. Evolutionary Applications pg. 186-199.
D’Antonio, C.M. and Meyerson, L.A. 2002. Exotic plant species as problems and solutions in ecological restoration: a synthesis. Restoration Ecology 10: 703–13.
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Paul G. Roman is currently enroled in the Masters of Conservation Biology programme. This unique programme is offered jointly by Victoria University of Wellington, located in New Zealand’s capital city, and The University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia. Mr. Roman graduated with a Bachelor of Science in Biology from the University of Hawaii in 2010. After graduation, he worked in conservation in Hawaii for 3 years as a field technician for both the Ko’olau Mountains Watershed Partnership and the Wai’anae Mountains Watershed Partnership.
3Rs of Ecology 